Energy Production and Reservoir Water Quality – A – Guide to the regulatory, Technical, and Theoreti

Table of Contents
1 Introduction 1-1
1.1 Reservoirs and Energy Production 1-2
Hydroelectric Generation 1-3
The Future of Hydroelectric Production on Reservoirs 1-4
Thermal Generation 1-5
The Future of Thermal Energy Production on Reservoirs 1-6
1.2 Uses of Report 1-6
1.3 References 1-7
2 Regulatory Framework 2-1
2.1 Authorizations 2-2
2.2 Regulatory Emphasis 2-3
2.3 Procedural Emphasis 2-4
2.4 Water Quantity and Use Issues 2-5
2.5 Water Quality Impairment Lists and Pollution Allocation Issues 2-9
2.6 Standards and Criteria 2-10
2.7 Impairment Determination 2-10
2.8 Total Maximum Daily Loads 2-11
Elements of A TMDL and Schedules 2-11
TMDL Issues Related to Reservoir Water Quality 2-12
Pollutant Allocations and TMDL Implementation 2-13
2.9 Fish and Wildlife Issues 2-15
2.10 Effects of Operations on Wildlife and Fisheries 2-16
Fish Passage Issues 2-16
Entrainment and Impingement Issues 2-17
2.11 Water Quality and Flow 2-18
2.12 Endangered Species Act Issues (ESA) 2-19
2.13 Biocriteria 2-19
2.14 FERC Licencing Issues 2-21
2.15 Federal Power Act Provisions 2-22
FPA Section 4 ‘(E), Equal Consideration Standard 2-23
FPA Section 10′(A)(1) Comprehensive Development Standard 2-23
FPA Section 10 ‘(J) 2-24
FPA Section 30 C 2-24
FPA Section 18 2-24
FPA Section 31 A 2-24
2.16 Other Applicable Laws and Statutes 2-24
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 2-24
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (FWCA) 2-25
National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) 2-25
Endangered Species Act (ESA) 2-25
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (WSRA) and the CEQ procedures 2-25
Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) – 1972 2-26
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) 2-26
Clean Water Act (CWA) 2-26
2.17 Other Regulatory Issues 2-28
2.18 References 2-30
3 Fundamental Water Quality Processes 3-1
3.1 Types of Reservoirs 3-2
Mainstem Reservoirs 3-3
Storage Reservoirs 3-3
Transition Reservoirs 3-3
3.2 Reservoir Zones 3-3
Riverine Zone 3-4
Transition Zone 3-4
Lacustrine Zone 3-5
3.3 Reservoir Hydrodynamics 3-5
3.4 Water Properties 3-6
3.5 Reservoir Stratification 3-7
3.6 Reservoir Heat Sources and Sinks 3-8
3.7 Particle Settling and Transport 3-9
3.8 Light and Heat Penetration 3-9
3.9 Dissolved Oxygen in Stratified Reservoirs 3-10
3.10 Anoxic Reservoir Processes 3-12
Deoxygenation 3-13
Denitrification 3-13
Ammonification 3-13
Manganese Reduction 3-14
Iron Reduction 3-14
Sulfate Reduction 3-14
Acidification of Organics 3-14
Methane Formation 3-14
Anaerobic Summary 3-15
3.11 Reservoir Discharge and Operation Effects 3-15
3.12 Tailwater Quality 3-16
Tailwater Temperature 3-16
Tailwater Dissolved Oxygen 3-16
Tailwater Iron and Manganese Oxidation 3-17
Tailwater Nutrients and Other Materials 3-17
3.13 References 3-22
4 Numerical Hydrodynamic and Transport Models for Reservoirs 4-1
4.1 Governing Equations for Mass, Momentum, Constituent
Mass and Heat Conservation 4-2
Theoretical Basis for Flow Modeling 4-2
Coordinate System 4-4
Turbulent Time-Averaged Equations 4-5
Overview of Turbulence Closure Modelling Approaches 4-16
Modeling Approaches 4-24
4.2 Mathematical solution techniques, computational efficiency and
hydrodynamic and water quality model linkages 4-45
Solution Techniques 4-45
Computational Efficiency 4-66
Model Inputs 4-67
Use and Linkages for Water Quality Modeling 4-67
4.3 References 4-69
5 Water Quality Modeling Theory 5-1
5.1 Introduction 5-1
5.2 Eutrophication Modeling 5-4
Eutrophication Processes 5-4
Model Formulation and Computational Properties 5-5
Evaluation of Kinetic Coefficients 5-6
Future Directions in Eutrophication Modeling 5-14
5.3 Sediment Exchange Processes 5-15
Model Framework 5-18
Computation of SOD and Sediment Release Rates 5-24
Nitrate 5-26
Phosphate and Silica 5-28
Water Quality Linkage 5-29
5.4 Toxics modeling 5-29
Risk and Hazard Assessments 5-31
Modeling Organic Chemicals 5-33
Modeling Metals 5-43
Slow Reactions 5-50
Bioaccumulaton Modeling 5-50
Evaluating Sediment Transport and Stability 5-51
5.5 Heat budget modeling 5-52
5.6 References 5-65
6 Modeling Systems and Their Application 6-1
6.1 Models and modeling systems 6-1
6.2 The model application procedure 6-4
Step 1: Identify the Problem 6-4
Step 2: Assess Prototype Conditions 6-6
Step 3: Develop the Modeling Plan 6-7
Step 4: Build the Model Grid 6-14
Step 5: Assemble Boundary Condition Data 6-19
Step 6: Assemble Initial Conditions Data 6-25
Step 7: Assemble calibration and evaluation data 6-27
Step 8: Develop Model input 6-30
Step 9: Test and Calibrate the model 6-31
Step 10: Apply the model 6-37
Data quality issues 6-38
Quality Assurance (QA) Planning 6-39
6.3 References 6-43
7 Case Studies 7-1
7.1 Water Quality Modeling of the Tennessee River system
to Support Beneficial Water Uses 7-4
Introduction 7-4
Site Description 7-4
Approach to Water Quality Assessment 7-5
Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Models 7-7
Model Application 7-8
Examples of Model Output and Evaluation Metrics 7-9
Conclusions 7-10
References 7-11
7.2 Limnology and Water Quality in a Multi-Zone Reservoir;
Flaming Gorge Reservoir 7-23
Description of Project 7-23
Geologic Setting-Paleolimnolgy 7-24
Longitudinal zonation 7-24
Issues involved 7-25
Sediment/phosphorus diagenesis in the riverine/transitional
zone 7-26
Studies and Modeling 7-27
Selective Level Outlet works 7-28
Summary 7-29
References 7-29
7.3 Old Hickory Reservoir 7-33
Bathymetry 7-34
Time-of-travel tests 7-35
Calibration 7-35
Gallatin Steam Plant thermal and water quality impacts 7-38
7.4 Use of Systems Models in Conjunction with 3-D Models:
Gerald Gentlemen Station, Nebraska 7-41
Systems Model 7-42
Calibration procedure and results 7-45
Frequency of exceedance statistics 7-46
3-D Model 7-47
Calibration procedure and results 7-48
Simulated Pond Modifications 7-50
Conclusions 7-52
References 7-52
7.5 Effectiveness of an Internal Weir to Improve Water Quality
in a Hydroelectric Reservoir 7-53
The Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Model 7-53
Input Conditions 7-54
Model Simulation Results 7-55
Conclusions 7-56
References 7-56
7.6 Hydrothermal Modeling Studies of Cooling Tower
Alternatives 7-63
Model Description and Input Data 7-64
Model Temperature Results 7-65
Verification of Temperature Results from Survey Data 7-65
Dissolved Oxygen Simulations and Results 7-67
Conclusions 7-68
References 7-68
8 Index 1-1