Handbook of Tunnel Fire safety – Second Edition

Contents Preface xiii
Contributor’s list xv
Introduction xvii
Part 1: Real tunnel fires 1
1 A history of fire incidents in tunnels 3
Richard Carvel and Guy Marlair
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Fires in road tunnels 4
1.3 Fires in rail tunnels 6
1.4 Concluding comments 7
1.5 A history of tunnel-fire incidents 8
References 20
2 Tunnel fire investigation l: the Channel Tunnel fire,
18-Nov-96 25
Martin Shipp
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 The Channel Tunnel fire 25
2.3 The tunnel system 25
2.4 The fire safety system 26
2.5 The incident 27
2.6 The investigation 28
2.7 Method 29
2.8 Findings from the incident 31
2.9 Issues, problems and lessons for fire investigation 31
2.10 Discussion 33
2.11 Conclusions 33
Acknowledgements 34
Appendix 2A: The Channel Tunnel fires of 2006 and 2008 34
Appendix 2B: About the CTSA 34
References 35
3 Tunnel fire investigation ll: the St. Gothard Tunnel fire,
24-Oct-01 37
Jean-Claude Martin, Olivier Delèmont and Claude Calisti
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Incident summary 37
3.3 Aims of the investigation into the fire and explosion 38
3.4 Summary description of the incident zone 39
3.5 Chronology of the incident 44
3.6 Discussion of the chronology 45
3.7 The origin of the fire 45
3.8 Cause of fire 48
3.9 Progagation of the fire across HGV 1 and HGV 2 54
3.10 Spread of the fire to HGVs 3 to 7 55
3.11 Thermal degradation of the vehicles beyond HGV 7 56
3.12 General discussion 56
3.13 Conclusions 57
Appendix 3A: Important factors relating to the investigation
of a fire in a road tunnel 57
4 Tunnel fire investigation lll: the Burnley Tunnel fire,
23-Mar-07 59
Arnold Dix
4.1 Introduction 59
4.2 Fire-fighting systems 59
4.3 Smoke and thermal detection 60
4.4 Communications 60
4.5 Signs 61
4.6 Access and egress 62
4.7 The incident 62
4.8 Discussion 63
4.9 Conclusion 64
References 64
Part ll: Prevention and protection 65
5 Prevention and protection: overview 67
Alan Beard, with additional material by Paul Scott
5.1 Introduction 67
5.2 Risk as a systemic product 67
5.3 Incompleteness of ssessment: allow for the
unanticipated 69
5.4 The system changes 70
5.5 Prevention and protecton as basic concepts 71
5.6 Context and causation 72
5.7 Prevention and protection in tunnels 73
5.8 Fire Safety Management 76
5.9 Fire prevention 76
5.10 Fire protection 78
5.11 Summary 83
Appendix 5A: Thoughts on avoiding major tunnel fires 83
References 86
6 Fire detection systems 89
Sandro Maciocia, updated by Arnd Rogner
6.1 Introduction 89
6.2 Problems in detecting fires 89
6.3 Performances requirements for fire detection systems 94
6.4 Different approaches to alerting tunnel users 97
6.5 Currently available tunnel fire detectors 97
6.6 Future trends and emerging new technologies 102
6.7 Conclusions 106
References 106
7 Passive fire protection in concete tunnels 109
Richard Carvel and Kees Both
7.1 Introduction 109
7.2 Types of tunnel 110
7.3 The behaviour of concrete subject to fire 110
7.4 Passive fire protection 115
7.5 Requirements 116
7.6 Secondary tunnel-lining systems 118
7.7 Tunnel cladding and panelling systems 119
7.8 Concrete additives 121
7.9 Other passive fire protection systems 123
7.10 Active fire protection 123
7.11 Concluding comments 123
References 123
8 Water-based fire-suppression systems for tunnels 127
Yajue Wu and Richard Carvel
8.1 Introduction 127
8.2 Principles of fire sprinklers 130
8.3 The dynamics of fire suppression by water sprays 133
8.4 The principle of water-based fire protection for tunnels 135
8.5 Large-scale trials 137
8.6 Evaluation of fixed fire-fighting systems for tunnels 146
8.7 Questions remaining 147
8.8 Outlook 148
References 149
9 Tunnel ventilation: state of the art 153
Art Bedelius
9.1 Introduction 153
9.2 Types of ventilation systems 154
9.3 Mechanical ventilation 157
9.4 Ventilation system components 163
9.5 Facilities 165
9.6 Technology 165
References 171
Further reading 174
10 The use of tunnel ventilation for fire safety 177
George Grant, updated by Stuart Jagger
10.1 Introduction 177
10.2 Modes of operation of tunnel ventilation systems
during a fire 178
10.3 Influence of ventilation on tunnel fire characteristics 189
10.4 Modelling tunnel flows 199
10.5 Conclusions 209
References 210
11 The influence of tunnel ventilation on fire behaviour 217
Richard Carvel and Alan Beard
11.1 Introduction 217
11.2 Basic fire science 217
11.3 Definitions 219
11.4 Methodology 220
11.5 A note on naturally ventilated tunnel fires 221
11.6 Results for HGV fires 222
11.7 Further observations on the growth rate of HGV fires:
aggregated data 227
11.8 Results for pool fires 228
11.9 Resuls for car fires 231
11.10 Discussion 232
11.11 Conclusions 234
Acknowledgements 234
References 234
Part lll: Tunnel fire dynamics 237
12 A history of experimental tunnel fires 239
Richard Carvel and Guy Marlair
12.1 Introduction 239
12.2 Fire experiments to gain an understanding of fire
phenomena 239
12.3 Fire experiments to evaluate sprinkler performance 250
12.4 Fire experiments to test or commision tunnel
installations 250
12.5 Fire experiments to investigate detector performance 251
12.6 Experimental testing on a smaller scale 254
12.7 Laboratory-scale experiments 260
12.8 Non-tunnel fire experiments 263
12.9 Concluding comments 264
References 266
13 Fire dynamics in tunnels 273
Haukur Ingason
Nomenclature 273
13.1 Introduction 274
13.2 Tunnel fires and open fires 275
13.3 Tunnel fires and compartment fires 275
13.4 Fuel control and ventilation control 280
13.5 Stratification of smoke in tunnels 283
13.6 Average flow conditions in longitudinal flow 287
13.7 Determination of heat-release rates in tunnel fires 294
13.8 Influence of ventilation on the heat-release rate 295
13.9 Flame length 296
13.10 Large fires in tunnels with longitudinal flow 299
13.11 Fire spread in tunnels 301
References 304
14 Heat release rates in tunnel fires: a summary 309
Haukur Ingason and Anders Lônnermark
14.1 Introduction 309
14.2 Overview of HRR data 310
14.3 Conclusion 323
References 325
15 CFD modelling of tunnel fires 329
Norman Rhodes
Nomenclature 329
15.1 Introduction 329
15.2 Mathematical overview 330
15.3 Physical phenomena in tunnel-fire situations 333
15.4 Application of CFD techniques to tunnel fires 334
15.5 Validation and verification 337
15.6 Case study: the Memorial Tunnel experiments 337
15.7 Concluding remarks 344
References 344
16 Control volume modelling of tunnel fires 347
David Charters
16.1 Introduction 347
16.2 Limitations 347
16.3 Application of control volume modelling to tunnel fires 347
16.4 Application of control volume models in tunnel fire safety 352
16.5 Summary 361
References 361
17 One-dimensional and multi-scale modelling of tunnel
ventilation and fires 365
Francesco Colella, Vittoria Verda, Romano Borchiellini
and Guillermo Rein
17.1 Introduction 365
17.2 One-dimensional models 366
17.3 Multi-scale models 376
References 387
18 Non-deterministic modelling and tunnel fires 391
Alan Beard
18.1 Introduction 391
18.2 Probabilistic models 391
18.3 Statistical models 391
18.4 Logic trees 392
18.5 Points schemes 393
18.6 Caveats in general 395
18.7 Concluding comment 395
References 395
Part IV: Fire safety management and human
factors 397
19 Human behaviour during tunnel fires 399
Jim Shields
19.1 Introduction 399
19.2 Some recent tunnel fires 399
19.3 Towards understanding human behaviour in tunnel fires 406
19.4 Responding to a developing emergency 415
19.5 Recent developments 416
19.6 Concluding remarks 417
References 418
20 Egress behaviour during road tunnel fires 421
Alain Noizet
20.1 Introduction 421
20.2 Scientific literature about tunnel egress behaviours 421
20.3 Understanding the determinants of human behaviour 423
20.4 Accounting for the specifics of road tunnel fires 428
20.5 A generic model for egress behaviour in tunnel fires 430
20.6 Conclusion: taking action to optimise egress
behaviours in road tunnel fires 435
References 436
21 Recommended behaviour for road tunnel users 439
Michael Egger
21.1 Introduction 439
21.2 Safety and risks in road traffic 440
21.3 Objectives for safety in road tunnels 441
21.4 Road users as a factor influencing safety in road tunnels 442
21.5 Proposed measures for road users 446
21.6 Conclusions and outlook 449
References 449
22 Transport of hazardous goods 451
Benjamin Truchot, Philippe Cassini and Herman Knoflacher
22.1 Introduction 451
22.2 Road tunnel classifications 451
22.3 Roads tunnel hazard quantification 461
22.4 Rail transport and road/rail inter-modality 476
22.5 Conclusions 481
References 481
23 A systemic approach to tunnel fire safety management 485
Jaime Santos-Reyes and Alan Beard
23.1 Introduction 485
23.2 A tunnel fire safety management system model (TFSMS) 486
23.3 Structural organization of the TFSMS 487
23.4 Communication and control in the TFSMS 493
23.5 Fire safety performance 497
23.6 Fire safety plans 498
23.7 Fire risk indices 499
23.8 The maximum risk acceptable (MRA), the acceptable
range of fire risk and the viability 500
23.9 Conclusion 501
Appendix 23A: Examples of systems 1-5 501
Appendix 23B: The four organizational principles 503
Appendix 23C: Control and communication paradigms 504
References 506
24 Road tunnel operation during a fire emergency 509
John Gillard
24.1 Introduction 509
24.2 The stakeholders in tunnel fire safety 510
24.3 The factors that influence tunnel operational safety 510
24.4 The nature of incidents 514
24.5 Liaison between the tunnel operator and emergency
services 515
24.6 Incident response 517
24.7 Decisions and actions 518
25 Tunnel fire safety and the law 525
Arnold Dix
25.1 Introduction 525
25.2 Legal investigations follow incidents 525
25.3 Legal investigations scrutinise past decisions 532
25.4 Conclusions 536
References 537
Part V: Emergency procedures 539
26 Emergency procedures in road tunnels 541
David Burns, updated by Michael Neilsen
26.1 Introduction 541
26.2 Managing safety in tunnels 541
26.3 Tunnel design 542
26.4 Tunnel management 544
26.5 Emergency response 545
26.6 Integration of design and management with
emergency response 551
26.7 Conclusion 553
References 554
27 Emergency procedures in rail tunnels 555
John Olesen, updated by Graham Gash
27.1 Introduction 555
27.2 Standard operational procedures 555
27.3 Contingency planning 561
27.4 Considerations 569
27.5 Conclusion 577
27.6 A detailed example: emergency procedures in the
Great Belt Tunnel, Denmark 578
28 Fire and rescue operations in tunnel fires: a discussion
of some practical issues 589
Anders Bergqvist, Hâkan Frantzich, Kjell Hasselrot and
Haukur Ingason
28.1 Introduction 589
28.2 Reference assumptions 589
28.3 An accident has occures and rescue work is in progress 590
28.4 Breathing apparatus operations in complicated
environments 592
28.5 Extinguishing extensive fires in tunnels 595
28.6 The rescue work continues 595
28.7 The main problems in dealing with a fire and rescue
situation in a tunnel and proposals for dealing with them 597
28.8 Proposed model for tackling fires in single-bore tunnels 609
28.9 Conclusions 611
References 612
Part VI: Tunnel fire safety decision-making 613
29 Problems with using models for fire-safety 615
Alan Beard
29.1 Introduction 615
29.2 Models and the real world 616
29.3 Kinds of theoretical models 618
29.4 Models as part of tunnel fire safety decision-making 621
29.5 Illustrative case 622
29.6 The potential of a specific model in tunnel fire-safety
decision-making 627
29.7 An acceptable ‘methodology of use’ 628
29.8 A ‘knowledgeable user’ 628
29.9 Evacuation modelling 629
29.10 Conclusion 630
References 631
30 Decision-making and risk assessment 635
Alan Beard
30.1 Introduction 635
30.2 Prescriptive and risk-based approaches 635
30.3 Approach to design 636
30.4 Lack of independence and assessment of risk 638
30.5 Acceptability of risk 638
30.6 Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) 641
30.7 ‘Cost-effectiveness’ approaches 642
30.8 Methodology for tunnel fire safety decision-making 642
References 646
Part VII: Specific topics 649
31 The UPTUN project: a brief summary 651
Kees Both
31.1 Introduction 651
31.2 UPTUN objectives and work programme 652
31.3 WP 1: Prevention, detection and monitoring 653
31.4 WP2: Fire development and mitigation measures 654
31.5 WP3: Human response 656
31.6 WP4: Fire effect and tunnel performance: system
structural response 657
31.7 WP5: Evaluation of safety levels an upgrading of
existing tunnels 658
31.8 WP6: Full-scale experimental proof-demonstration 659
31.9 WP7: Promotion, dissemination,education/training
and socio-economic impact 660
31.10 Conclusion 661
31.11 Recommendations for further research 661
Acknowledgements 661
32 The River Tyne road tunnels and fixed fire suppression 663
Peter Hedley
32.1 Introduction 663
32.2 Organising the change to the system 663
32.3 Deciding on a new system 665
32.4 Comparison of a FFSS with an in-house First-Response
approach 666
32.5 The FFSS selected 667
32.6 The safety culture underpinning the operating
philosophy 667
32.7 Use of the FFSS and ventilation at the same time 668
32.8 The positive return to society 669
32.9 Observations on decisions regarding the New Tyne
Crossing 669
References 670
33 Hydrogen-powered cars and tunnel safety 671
Yahue Wu
33.1 Introduction 671
33.2 Fuel release scenarios and fuel release rate 671
33.3 The hazards of hydrogen release in tunnels 672
33.4 Mitigation resources 673
33.5 Outlook 674
References 675
Index 677